When manipulation of the independent variable and random assignment are not possible, the research is called:

When manipulation of the independent variable and random assignment are not possible, the research is called:

Options:

(a) Basic research

(b) Quantitative research

(c) Experimental research

(d) Causal-comparative and correlational research

✅ Correct Option: (d) Causal-comparative and correlational research

Explanation (200+ words):

Causal-comparative and correlational research are used when researchers cannot manipulate the independent variable or randomly assign participants to groups. These designs examine existing differences or relationships among variables. Causal-comparative research compares groups based on pre-existing characteristics, while correlational research examines the degree of relationship between variables. Although these approaches can suggest associations, they cannot establish definitive causation. Such methods are common in education and social sciences where ethical or practical constraints limit experimental control.

10 Related PPSC Facts:

No manipulation involved. No random assignment. Examines existing conditions. Suggests relationships. Cannot prove causation. Common in education research. Uses comparison groups. Ethical and practical advantages. Observational in nature. Important non-experimental designs.